Resistance To Change Management

Resistance To Change Management From individual level to highest organizational level change is seen everywhere for their reformation and development. To cope up with globalization and for survival of the organisation a lot of companies are enforced to make their changes. But it is not always an easy task and some people are not willing to accept the change agenda because of inertia and the fare of losing their job (Edmonds, 2011). A different number of factors affect the change process and for the resistance many change program have failed (Waddell and Sohal, 1998). So for the achievement of successful change, resistance should be considered and managed accordingly (Pardo-del-val Martinez Fuentes, 2003). The main objective of this paper is to analyse the organisational change management and specially different ways to address and minimize the resistance to manage successful change by reviewing different related literature. In first part define In this essay there are five sections, i.e. introduction, literature review, resistance to change, how to manage successful change and finally conclusion. What is Change? Before going to start review of different change models, it is important to describe the definitions and concept about organisational change to make a clear idea about it.Organisational change is the transformation of structure, quality and position by introducing latest ideas and dealings for the better performance and global adjustment of the organisation (Sckalk et. al., 1998, cited by Pardo-del-val et al., 2012). Organisational change basically in two types, where first one is evolutionary or incremental or first order change and anotherone is strategic or transformational or revolutionary or second order change (Pardo-del-val Martinez Fuentes, 2003). The first category of change is a small scale change which improve the quality within the same framework on the other hand, second category of change is a radical one, organizational structure and basic framework are completely change here (Blumenthal and Haspeslag, 1994). The main objectiveof radical change is to improve the potent ials of the organisation for competing the market (Ruiz and Lorenzo, 1999). However organisational change also classified as planned change and emergent change(Bamford and Forrester, 2003).The planned approach organisational change highlights the different status which an organisation will have to shift from an unacceptable position to recognized desired position (Eldrod II and Tippett, 2002). The emergentchange suggests that it is an unpredictable and undesirable continuous method of adjustment to changing environments (Burnes, 2004). But uncertainty of circumstances create emergent approach more significant (Bamford and Forrester, 2003). So, an organization should identify the requirements of change and how to deal with that changes (Burnes, 2004). Although for the existence and effective competition successful management of change is highly required (Luecke, 2003). Why Change Basically change is requiredfor the global economic crisis, technological advancement, market competition and development of the organization (Brisson-Bank, 2010). Edmonds (2011) argued that some factors influence the organization for changing their strategy and forms. The factors are governmental change, joining with another one, global economic challenges, different formation, Strategy for leaving business, technological advancement and business strategy. Dawson, (1994) also described that, a single instrument or entire design of manufacturing process may be restored in the technological change process. When the structure or formation of an organization change it involves the employee structure, reward system and organisational communication system. Governmental or legislative change includes different policies, environmental control, employment opportunity etc. These factors are generally inter-reliant. For instance technological change may need skilled employee, competition among local engineering workforce etc. So, change is intended to different points but it cannot satisfy all. In reality it cannot be managed completely. He also added that if people are not clearly informed about change before implementation they make a resistance against the change process. Paton and McCalman, (2000) argues that naturally a favorable environment is created and accepted by an organization. When change is required, whatever it may be, the organization will face the resistance by its employee, stakeholder, customer, dealer, and distributor, because they feel comfortable with the present environment and frightened with uncertainty regarding change. He also added that the resistance can be reduced but this uncertainty cannot be eradicated completely. Resistance to change: Now it is important to give an idea about the barrier which hinders the change process at its different stages is resistance. So, resistance is defined asan opposing trend which affects the change agenda by delaying start, blocking implementation and raising theprice(Ansof, 1990, cited byPardo-del-val Martinez Fuentes, 2003).In addition resistance always wants to maintain status quo. It has a tendency to keep away from change as inertia (Rumelt, 1995). Resistance is indicated as the main cause of problem of implementation and failure of change agenda (Erwin and Garman, 2010). Dawson (2003) recognizes some factors which create resistance i.e.changing of job nature, transfer of job or economic insecurity, psychological pressure, lowering status and disturbance in societal arrangement. Graetz et al. (2002) has identified four main perceptions of resistance to change which are (cited by Hughes, 2006); the psychological model the system model the institutional approach, and theorganisational cultures approach. The psychological model indicates the resistance which is created by individuals behavior. The system model recommends that people do not resist change but they resist what they are losing.Resistance is establishedinorganisational formation, administrative procedure, and allocation of assets at the institutional approach. As the consequence of organisational culture resistance can be described in this approach(Hughes, 2006). Hambrick and Cannella (1989) have classified the resistance as three types which are as blind resistance, political resistance and ideological resistance. The persons of blind resistance type are considered to befrightened in any kind of changes. The considerations of political resistance type persons are to lose something valuable after the implementation of change. More over the persons of ideological resistance type consider thattheir establishedvalues may be tarnished if change is implemented (Hughes, 2006). Greetz et al. (2002) classified the resistance as active and passive where active resistance is occur at the time of aggressive change and passive resistance is occur at the period of indirect change. Continuum On the other hand Pardo-del-val Martinez Fuentes,( 2003) added that resistace is not always a negative notion when change is not very favorable.InadditionMabin et al., (2001) also argued that for the improvement of the quality of decision for transformation resistance can be make a positive role. Some factors createthe resistance at different stages of change process. Resistance creates difficulties at the stage of strategy formulation and at the stage of implementation. More over the sources of resistance are divided in five groups where first three groups act as the sources of resistance at the formulation stage and last two groups act as the sources of resistance at the implementation stage (Rumelt, 1995; cited by Pardo-del-val Martinez Fuentes, 2003). Wrong perception: At the initial stage it is important toassess the needs for change, so incorrectassessment is the first barrier of change. It is also known as the barrier of interpretation.It contains another factors short-term mind set and do not have the clear idea about future strategy, Information rejection tendency, continuationof thoughts or trend to continue thoughts at the changingsituation, implied assumptions, barrier of communication, and organisational silence. Lower motivation: When change is done for a product manufacturing but it can create some problems for another. Different interest groups are involved in the change process. So sacrifice and motivation is needed. Shortage of innovative response: Reactive mentality and lack of commitment of highest authority are the main factors of this stage. Cultural and political gap: Politics of different sections, specific discrepancy among different groups, different values and environment for implementation are the main factors of this group. Another sources: Different sources are acted in the last group i.e. ineffective leadership, unplanned routines, problem of group action, shortage of required capabilities and distrust. How to manage resistance to successful change: Bamford and Forrester (2003) argues that management literature did not make any consensus about a suitable approach forsuccessfully managing organisational change. Some disagreements are always prevailing in this field. So change managers are confused to take decision for choosing the appropriate approach. They did not find any effective and reliable approach for applying in change management. If uncertainty is created by resistance not by change then resistance to change will be the major concern to manage not change itself (Carnall, 2003). Dowson (2003) has suggested that by participation, communication, support, negotiation, influence and force complexities of resistance can beovercome. He also argued that organizational development model supports the participatory approaches. In the reality it is better to employee involvement in the change process rather imposed by the management (Hughes, 2006). Resistance is created in major changes but negative effects of resistance can be red uced by open discussion andopenly discussed resistance is easily manageable than the resistance of unexpressed (Conner, 1998). It is necessary to be practical for managing resistance the nature and context of the resistance should be analyzed by the change managers (Hughes, 2006). The participatory approach is widely analyzed for its effectiveness and mostly discussed in business area as an important issue to smooth the progress of organisational change (Pardo-del-val et al., 2012). Generally, at present participatory management is playing an important part for reducing the resistance (Waddell and Sohal, 1998). Participatory approach is well received for its better creativeness and decision make (Lawler, 1993). Now it is important to know about the participative management and its impact on reducing resistance to organisational change. Participative management is a style where employees are involved in every step of the change process from decision making to implementation (Cole et al., 1993; cited byPardo-del-val et al., 2012). It is known as a traditionalconception in management literatureabout eighty years (Lawler, 1993). Managers share the decisions with the employees through information technology, training, management culture and leadership (Pardo-del-Val and Lloyd, 2003).The participative approach is generally recognized as the best method for managing resistance to organisational change which acts on two steps, firstly by decreasing resistance and then by increasing efficiency (Pardo-del-val et al., 2012).The success of changeprogramme depends on the proper identification of major sources of resistance. The change process start from its first step taking decision staff involvement is required from this stage. There is a connection between participation and commitment, and resistance is reduced by that commi tment. So the literatures opine that it is the best way to defeat resistance by the participationof all people (Pardo-del-val et al., 2012).When people feel that they are involved in the change process as well as decision making process a commitment is grown inside them by participating in the programme. Then the resistance created by the employees can be reduced by sharing the responsibilities within managers and staffs (Zeffane, 1996). Time consumption is the only shortcomingof this approach otherwisefor growing commitment and feeling it is very convenient process to manage resistance for a successful change (Lenz and Lyles, 1986). Communication is another process to implement change programme by reducing resistance (Hughes, 2006). It is impossible to make changes of an organization without effective communication with staffs (Barrett, 2002). Where communication is essential it depends on the nature, urgency, promptness and reactions of change (Quirke. 1995). The change management is generally a top down procedure, so management should provide information to the employee for clarify the necessity of transformation (Hayes, 2002). Balogun and Hope Hailey (2004) argued some reasons for communication in organizational change; Employees do not like to receive information from rumor; they always desire to know the information of change from their higher authority. Employees can realize and adjust if communicate with them earlier. Employees like to hear authentic information. Employees want to know about changes and do not like hidden policy. Finally Hughes, (2006) argued that the strategic communication is necessary for a strategic change. So, by proper communication resistance can be reduced to manage successful change. Moreover, middle managers can play an important role for both reduce the resistance and implement the change.Bamford and Forrester (2003) argue that senior managers are mainly involved with policy formulation and control but middle managers are directly involved with customer, workers and suppliers. So, operating managers have the multi-dimensional experience. They can predict the consequences of transformation. For these reasons necessary measures and adaptation policies can be taken. Middle managers can displayand filter the proposal of change initiatives and suggest to authority. Then senior managers can take decision by analyzing the proposals of middle managers. The planned change can be executedby managers with their understanding and experiences but emergent changes related to development cannot be executed solely, it needs multifunctional approaches (Wilson, 1992). Additionally Edmonds (2011) argued that team work and training have the role to implement change by decreasing resistance. He asserts that team sets task, scheduling and aim to achieve goal and develops interpersonal relations which is important for change initiatives. Edmonds also emphasized that some special skills are essentialfor manage different types of changes. Training is the basic way to attainthose skills. Finally Taylor (1999) added that training can support to understand the implementation procedure of change and clear the ambiguity. Recommendations for Further Research: Drawing the attention on change agenda, there may be basic requirement of an appropriate outline for the management of organisational change. Due to shortage of experimental study on change management in organisations, it is recommended that more research into the character of change management will be directed. The primary stage may be to complete investigative studies to enhance the understanding themanagement oforganisational change.The significant success factors can be identified by these studies for the change management. Moreover, it is very much essential to determine success rate for creating a suitable structure of change management. Therefore, determinationtechniques should be intended (Todnem By, 2005). Conclusion: Change is a continuous process for organisational development and adjusting with modern world. So, managing change is an important issue for an organization and successfully management of it is highly required (Todnem By, 2005). In the process of management of change resistance is a factor which is to be considered. So success of change depends on the success of managing resistance. Where, resistance wants to keep the organization in its current position by delaying the process. There are different factors acting as resistance which are organizational values, interests of the employees, communication gap, stillness of organization, and lack of capabilities of management and employees. So, management should consider these factors to reduce resistance for successful change (Pardo-del-val Martinez Fuentes, 2003). To reduce the resistance to change there is no universal way but some probable approaches are suggested in different management literature. Executives should give proper concentration for their needs. Moreover Pardo-del-val et al., (2012) suggested that participative management can be the one of the best way to reduce resistance. He also added that participative approach canproperlyaddressthe mentioned sources of resistance as a result output of the change process can be improved.He showed a positive relation between employee participation and resistance. Any complicacy related to change process can be resolved by the participation of staffs (Waddell and Sohal, 1998). Furthermore the barriers of change programme can be removed by open discussion (Beer and Eisenstat, 1996). Finally Pardo-del-val Martinez Fuentes, 2003 suggested that change managers can take an important role to implement successful organizational change. Managers have to know the effect of change on organisational culture and take probable measures to develop before start. This measure will be helpful to develop the relation between staffs and managers. He also emphasized that training can lessen the resistance by reducingthe barriers of communication and develop the essential skills for the change. Reference:Claire V. Brisson-Banks, (2010),Managing change and transitions: a comparison of different models and their commonalities, Library Management, Vol. 31 Iss: 4 pp. 241 252 John Edmonds, (2011),Managing successful change, Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 43 Iss: 6 pp. 349 353 Paton, R.A. and McCalman, J. (2000), Change Management: A guide to effective implementation, Sage, London.

Digital Signal formatting

Digital Signal formatting Introduction: Digital Signal formatting is the process of transforming information from one format into another.. This is often used in many digital devices and for communication processes. A digital system is a data technology that uses discrete (discontinuous) values. By contrast, non-digital (or analog) systems use a continuous range of values to represent information. Although digital representations are discrete, the information represented can be either discrete, such as numbers, letters or icons, or continuous, such as sounds, images, and other measurements of continuous systems. Now we discuss about in the detail signal format in digital systems. Non-return-to-zero format: One of the simplest ways to transmit digital data is by having a separate clock and data line. In this approach, a clock signal of constant frequency is synchronised with its corresponding data. Depending upon the preference of the designer, the data is either latched on the rising or falling edge of the clock. For a given data signalling rate that is the bit rate, the NRZ code have requires only one half of the band-width required by the ing. When we used to show data in an asynchronous communication scheme, the absence of a neutral state requires other methods for data backup to replace method used for error detection when using synchronization data when a separate clk signal is available here. NRZ Level itself is not a synchronous system but besides encoding that can be used in either a synchronous or asynchronous transmission environment that is with or with out an external clock signal involved in it. Because of that it is not strictly important to discuss how the NRZ-Level encoding act as on a clock edge and during a clock cycle since all transitions happen in the given amount of time represents the actual implied integral clock cycle. The real question is that of sampling the high/low state be received correctly provided the transmission line has stabilizes for that bit when the physical line level is sampled at the receiving end. However may be it is handy to see NRZ transitions as happening on the trailing clock edge in order to compare NRZ-Level to other encode methods such the given Manchester coding which require clock edge information and to see the difference between the NRZ Mark and NRZ Inverted signals. Uni-polar Non-Return-to-Zero Level: One is represents by the one physical level Zero is represented by an other levels which is a + voltage level. In the clock language the 1 transitions and remain highest on the trailing clock edge of the previous bit and 0 transitions or remains low on the trailing clock edge of the previous bit, or may be just the opposite. This allows for long series without change, which makes synchronization difficult. There is only the solutions are to not send the bytes or data without uses of transitions. The fig show a line represents the physical zero under the biased logical zero shows the less usually case of 1 being a higher voltage level. Non Return-to-Zero Space: One is represents by no change in physical level.0 is represents by the change in physical stage. In clock language the level transitions on the trailing clock peak point of previous bit to represent 0. That change on zero is used by High Level Data Link and USB. They avoid long intervals of time of no transition whether there may be, when the data contains long sequence of 1 bit by using zero bit insertion. HDLC transmitters insert a zero bit after five contiguous one bits except when transmitting the frame. USB transmitters insert a zero bit after six continuously 1 bits. The receiver at the far end use the each transition both from zero bits in the data and these extra 0 bits for maintain clock synchronize. The receiver rather than ignore these non zero bits. Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted (NRZI) NRZI-transition occurs for a zero Non return to zero, inverted is technique of detect a binary to a analog signal for transmission over some transmitter medium. There are 2 level NRZI signal has a transition at a clock boundary if there is the bit being sent is a logical one and doesnt having a transition if the bit being transmit is a logical zero. 1 is represented by a transition of the physical level. 0 has no transition. Also the NRZI may be take the opposite convention in Universal Serial Bus signalling, when in the Mode one transition when signalling zero and steady level when signalling one. The transition occurs upon the leading edge of the clock for the given bit. This distinguishes NRZI from NRZ mark. Even thoughr, even NRZI can have long series of zeros (ones if transitioning on o), so clock recovery can be difficult unless some form of run length limited coding is used on top. Magnetic disk and tape generally uses fixed rate RLL codes while USB uses bit stuffing, which is more efficient, but results in a variable data rate it takes lower levelto send a long string of 1 bits over USB than it does to send a long string of 0 bits. Return-to-zero The binary signal is encoded using rectangular pulse amplitude modulation with polar return-to-zero code Return-to-zero (RZ) describes a line code used in telecommunications signals in which the signal drops (returns) to zero between each pulse. Returns to zero modulation formats are becoming increasingly popular for long-haul optical fiber transmission systems at bit rates of 10 Gb/s and above. Previously, the benefits of RZ formats were often overlooked, because they require larger bandwidth than non-return-to-zero (NRZ) formats, and their generation typically requires two cascaded Mach-Zehnder (MZ) modulators. In recent years, it has been shown that RZ can have superior performance over NRZ in certain regimes where chromatic dispersion and fiber nonlinearities are present [2]-[4], as the RZ pulse may exhibit soliton-like properties. In addition, RZ has greater tolerance to polarization-mode dispersion than NRZ Recent research has compared the performance of RZ with different modulation techniques, including binary ON-OFF keying (OOK) and binary differential phase-shift keying (2-DPSK ) RZ pulses are frequently generated by driving an MZ modulator by a sinusoidal drive waveform; we assume throughout this paper that RZ pulses are generated in this manner. We define the pulse duty cycle as TFWHM/TS, where TFWHM is the pulsewidth (full-width at half-maximum intensity), and TS is the symbol duration. Depending on the drive waveform amplitude and bias, RZ pulses can have duty cycles of 33%, 50%, and 67%. In particular, 67% RZ is often referred to as carrier-suppressed RZ (CSRZ). Biphase mark code: The biphase mark code is a type of encoding format for binary data streams. When a binary data stream is sent without modification via a channel, there can be long series of logical ones or zeros without any transitions which makes clock recovery and synchronization difficult. Streams encoded in NRZ are affected by the same problem. Using biphase mark code makes synchronization easier by ensuring that there is at least one transition on the channel between every data bit; in this way it behaves much like the Manchester code scheme. Every bit of the original data is represented as two logical states which, together, form a bit. Every logical 1 in the input is represented as two different bits (10 or 01) in the output. The input logical 0 is represented as two equal bits (00 or 11) in the output. Every logical level at the start of a cell is inversion of the level at the end of the previous cell. In BMC output the logical 1 and 0 are represented with the same voltage amplitude but opposite polarities, as shown in the following image: These coding provides a better results there is a change in the polarity at the minimum every two bits. That is not need to know the polarity of the sent signal since the information is not kept in the actual values of the voltage but in their change: in other words it does not matter whether a logical 1 or 0 is received.At last BMC code signal has 0 average DC voltage, therefore decreasing the necessary sending power and also reduces the electromagnetic disturbance generated by the transmission line. All these + aspects are achieved at the expense of doubling clock frequency. Manchester encoding: Manchester encoding offers distinct advantages over other digital encoding schemes. It has become a popular standard for low-cost radio frequency communication of digital data. In reality, Manchester encoding was the result of research done at the University of Manchester into phase modulation techniques used for reading and writing digital data onto a magnetic storage device. Since that time, Manchester encoding has gained wide acceptance as the modulation scheme for low-cost radio-frequency transmission of digital data. One of the most significant characteristics of Manchester encoding is its unique way of representing digital data. Rather than representing data Construction of Manchester-encoded data: Manchester encoding is very easy to construct. You simply combine the serial bits to be encoded with the clock running at the bit-boundary rate When you compare the Manchester-encoded output with the bit stream, youll see the same waveform. Decoding Manchester-encoded Data Decoding Manchester-encoded data is as easy as encoding it. You simply perform an exclusive-OR of the Manchester encoded signal with a logical 1 at the bit-boundary sample points, as shown in Fig. Differential Manchester encoding: A more esoteric version of Manchester encoding is a scheme called Differential Manchester encoding (DME). Think of it as Manchester encoding on steroids. DME is a more efficient encoding scheme because it requires less bandwidth than standard Manchester encoding. The overhead of transmitting a data stream using DME is less because it doesnt require a preamble, which is used by the DPLL to lock onto the clock frequency. Because of this, DME can be found in networks, such as fast Ethernet over copper twisted-pair wiring. DME differs from standard Manchester encoding in one simple way: Manchester encoding represents binary data based on a positive or negative edge transition at each bit boundary. DME represents data by the presence or absence of a transition between two bit boundaries. Simply stated, if a transition occurs between a bit boundary, its represented as a binary 0. An absence of a transition signifies a binary 1. As a complement to this reintroduction to the basics of Manche ster encoding for lowbit serial network applications, a second article is available online at Embedded.com. The article will leverage from the theory presented here and offer a practical, real-world example that illustrates the simplicity of implementing Manchester encoding into a real embedded design. AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) encode format : AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) is a synchronous clock encoding technique which uses bipolar pulses to represent logical 1 values. It is therefore a three level system. A logical 0 is represented by no symbol, and a logical 1 by pulses of alternating polarity. The alternating coding prevents the build-up of a d.c. voltage level down the cable. This is considered an advantage since the cable may be used to carry a small d.c. current to power intermediate equipment such as line repeaters. AMI coding was used extensively in first generation PCM networks, but suffers the drawback that a long run of 0s produces no transitions in the data stream (and therefore does not contain sufficient transitions to guarantee lock of a DPLL). Successful transmission therefore relies on the user not wishing to send long runs of 0s and this type of encoding is not therefore transparent to the sequence of bits being sent. The HDB3 encoding scheme is one of many which have been developed to provide regular transitions irrespective of the pattern of data being carried. Example of AMI encoding The pattern of bits 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 encodes to + 0 0 0 0 + (the corresponding encoding using HDB3 is + 0 0 0 + + ). High Density Bipolar Order 3 Encoding: The HDB3 code is a bipolar signaling technique (i.e. relies on the transmission of both positive and negative pulses). It is based on Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI), but extends this by inserting violation codes whenever there is a run of 4 or more 0s. This and similar (more complex) codes have replaced AMI in modern distribution networks. Conclusion: The Digital signal formats are the techniques by which we uses the digital data in different formats for uses of different purposes. It is mostly used as wide applications in communication fields. Although digital representations are discrete, the information represented can be either discrete, such as numbers, letters or icons, or continuous, such as sounds, images, and other measurements of continuous systems by using these different encoding or digital formats techniques. Refrences: website links: http://www.docstoc.com/doccash/signup/?doc_id=2507650 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/encoding_format_(digital) http://pdfdatabase.com/index.php?q=signal+formats+in+digitalfiletype=2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-return-to-zero http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_encoding http://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse473-05/ftp/i_5cod/sld006.htm http://www.tpub.com/neets/tm/112-2.htm http://www.osun.org/alternate+mark+inversion+encoding-doc.html Books: Computer Networks and data communication by Frauzan. Computer networks by J.s katre (tech-max publisher) Signals and system by Sanjay Sharma.

The old man in the sea :: essays research papers

Franklin Delone Roosevelt Franklin was born on January 30, 1882 just south of the village of Hyde Park, New York. Franklin came form a very wealthy Family, his father owned Springwood it was the Roosevelt country estate. His father name is James and his mother’s name is Sara. Franklin did not attend public school his mother tough him how to read and write before he was six. He was born for success he also had tutors whom tough him Latin, French, and German along with the usual. Every second of his day was scheduled – up at seven, breakfast at eight, lesson with his governess form nine to noon, an hour for play, then lunch and more lessons until four, then he was allowed to be on his own until supper. He spent much of his time around grown-ups so he matured quicker than the other kids so he did not quit fit in with the other kids so he did not have that many friends. Every thing they did was first class if they went on a trip it would be on their private rail car etc. Most rich boys like Franklin go away to boarding school when they turned twelve, but Franklin stayed home under his mother’s wing until he tuned fourteen. In 1896, he entered Gordon, an exclusive Massachusetts prep school; usually rich kids would go away to an Ivy League Co llage. At Gordon, they were expected to live by strict rules, show the proper school spirit, and act like gentlemen. After he graduated from Gordon, he attended Harvard, after he graduated from Harvard he goes into politics. He would travel around to little towns and meet every one and ask them stuff like what could be changed and what and what he could he could do to help them. After that, he would give a speech to the

Exemplification Essay: Bulimia Nervosa :: Expository Exemplification Essays

People with bulimia nervosa consume large amounts of food and then rid their bodies of the excess calories by vomiting, abusing laxatives or diuretics, taking enemas, or exercising obsessively. Some use a combination of all these forms of purging. Because many individuals with bulimia "binge and purge" in secret and maintain normal or above normal body weight, they can often successfully hide their problem from others for years. Lisa developed bulimia nervosa at 18. Like Deborah, her strange eating behavior began when she started to diet. She too dieted and exercised to lose weight, but unlike Deborah, she regularly ate huge amounts of food and maintained her normal weight by forcing herself to vomit. Lisa often felt like an emotional powder keg--angry, frightened, and depressed. Unable to understand her own behavior, she thought no one else would either. She felt isolated and lonely. Typically, when things were not going well, she would be overcome with an uncontrollable desire for sweets. She would eat pounds of candy and cake at a time, and often not stop until she was exhausted or in severe pain. Then, overwhelmed with guilt and disgust, she would make herself vomit. Her eating habits so embarrassed her that she kept them secret until, depressed by her mounting problems, she attempted suicide. Fortunately, she didn't succeed. While recuperating in the hospital, she was referred to an eating disorders clinic where she became involved in group therapy. There she received medications to treat the illness and the understanding and help she so desperately needed from others who had the same problem. Family, friends, and physicians may have difficulty detecting bulimia in someone they know. Many individuals with the disorder remain at normal body weight or above because of their frequent binges an purges, which can range from once or twice a week to several times a day.

The Impact of Global Warming on Human Health Essay -- Environmental Gl

The Impact of Global Warming on Human Health   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the world, the presence of particular diseases and other threats to human health depend largely on the local climate. Extreme variation in temperature can directly, and indirectly, cause the loss of human life. The threat of a gradual increase in temperature could be catastrophic to the world, as we know it. In 1999, a heat wave killed more than 250 people in Chicago alone (Union of Concerned Scientists). Many consider such an event as a natural disaster. However, scientists warn the average global temperature has increase 0.5  ° F in the past 40 years. This is half of the total increase in surface temperature, 1 °F, since the late 19th century. At its current rate, the global temperature could rise 2 ° to 6 °F in the next 100 years (Union of Concerned Scientist).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Such a drastic increase in the rate of temperature increase is due to the industrial revolution. In the past 40 years, the world has seen a drastic increase in population and the use of fossil fuels (gasoline, oil, coal or natural gas). These fuels are used to run our cars, heat and cool our homes, manufacture goods in our factories and to ship goods for worldwide consumption. The focus, until lately, has been to produce maximum product at a minimum price to maximize profit. Little to no care was taken to minimize the amount of fossil fuels used in the production of goods. Recently, it has become evident that such practices lead to the production of greenhouse gases. Whenever fossil fuels are burned for energy, greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide builds up in the earth’s atmosphere (Union of Concerned Scientists).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another reason why greenhouse gases have increased is due to the decrease in the amount of plant life, commonly called deforestation. Plant life is the only thing known on earth to consume carbon dioxide. However, due to the need of raw materials (wood and paper pulp), industrial nations tend to cut down more trees than they can reforest (Fuller 454). Also, toxins produced as a by-product of industrialization have killed plant life. Therefore, a greater amount of carbon dioxide is being produced at the same time less carbon dioxide is being consumed, leading to dangerous consequences.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The combination of pollutants and deforestation has lead to what is commonly called the Greenhouse Effect. The term... ...ure on the government to create legislation that will save the environment as well as keep our energy rates low and stable. Such legislation is almost impossible. A good first step for the government would be to create effective, mass public transportation such as the train and subway systems of Europe. However, we the residents of this planet, also must do our part to reduce our role in polluting the environment. After all, we are the ones who have to live with, or die from, the consequences of our actions. Works Cited Buchholz, Rogene A. Principles of Environmental Management. (1984). Christianson, Gale E. Greenhouse: The 200-Year Story of Global Warming. (1999). Fuller, Jim. â€Å"Ministers Unable to Reach Agreement at Climate Change Conference†. November 25, 2005. Http://globalchange.gov/news/hague_conference_2005_1125.html Leggett, Jeremy. The Climate Time Bomb: Signs of Climate Change from The Greenpeace Database (Amsterdam, Netherlands: Stichting Greenpeace Council, 1994). Revkin, Andrew. Global Warming: Understanding the Forecast.(2004). Union of Concerned Scientist. â€Å"Safeguarding the web of life: Global Environment†. June 29, 2006. http://www.uscusa.org

Economics Syllabus

CARIBBEAN EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations Correspondence related to the syllabus should be addressed to: The Pro-Registrar Caribbean Examinations Council Caenwood Centre 37 Arnold Road, Kingston 5, Jamaica, W. I. Telephone Number: (876) 920-6714 Facsimile Number: (876) 967-4972 E-mail address: [email  protected] org Website: www. cxc. org Copyright  © 2008, by Caribbean Examinations Council The Garrison, St. Michael BB 11158, Barbados This document CXC A20/U2/08 replaces CXC A20/U2/03 issued in 2003. Please note that the syllabus was revised and amendments are indicated by italics and vertical lines.First Issued 2003 Revised 2008 Please check the website www. cxc. org for updates on CXC’s syllabuses. RATIONALE1 AIMS 2 SKILLS AND ABILITIES TO BE ASSESSED2 PRE-REQUISITES OF THE SYLLABUS3 STRUCTURE OF THE SYLLABUS3 UNIT 1: MICROECONOMICS MODULE 1: METHODOLOGY: DEMAND AND SUPPLY 4 MODULE 2: MARKET STRUCTURE, MARKET FAILURE AND INTERVENTION†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 12 MODULE 3: DISTRIBUTION THEORY 17 UNIT 2: MACROECONOMICS MODULE 1: MODELS OF THE MACROECONOMY27 MODULE 2: MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND POLICIES28 MODULE 3: GROWTH, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL RELATIONS36 OUTLINE OF ASSESSMENT44REGULATIONS FOR PRIVATE CANDIDATES 55 REGULATIONS FOR RESIT CANDIDATES56 ASSESSMENT GRID57 RESOURCES58 GLOSSARY59 T T he Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE) are designed to provide certification of the academic, vocational and technical achievement of students in the Caribbean who, having completed a minimum of five years of secondary education, wish to further their studies. The examinations address the skills and knowledge acquired by students under a flexible and articulated system where subjects are organised in 1-Unit or 2-Unit courses with each Unit containing three Modules.Subjects examined under CAPE may be studied concurrently or singly, or may be combined with subjects examined by other examination boards or ins titutions. The Caribbean Examinations Council offers three types of certification. The first is the award of a certificate showing each CAPE Unit completed. The second is the CAPE diploma, awarded to candidates who have satisfactorily completed at least six Units, including Caribbean Studies. The third is the CAPE Associate Degree, awarded for the satisfactory completion of a prescribed cluster of seven CAPE Units including Caribbean Studies and Communication Studies.For the CAPE diploma and the CAPE Associate Degree, candidates must complete the cluster of required Units within a maximum period of five years. Recognized educational institutions presenting candidates for CAPE towards the award of the Council’s Associate Degree in nine categories must, on registering these candidates at the start of the qualifying year, have them confirm in the required form, the Associate Degree they wish to be awarded. Candidates will not be awarded any possible alternatives for which they d id not apply. T ? RATIONALEEconomics is the study of how society provides for itself by making the most efficient use of scarce resources so that both private and social welfare may be improved. The subject, therefore, covers the study of individuals, households, firms, government and international economic institutions as they attempt to make better use of scarce resources. The study of Economics enables individuals to develop a better understanding of the economic issues which affect them and the world in which they live. It will also enable students to offer informed comments on economic matters.The knowledge gained from this course in Economics will be of lifelong value to the student. The influence of the subject on all areas of activity should stimulate the individual to continue reading and conducting research in Economics. It is recognised that persons doing this course may be drawn from different backgrounds and may possess different interests. Some may wish to study Econom ics as preparation for further specialisation in the subject. Others may study the subject to complement other subject disciplines, such as, careers in finance, accounting or law.Some students may see the subject as one worthy of study in its own right. Students of Economics will be able to contribute, significantly, to economic and social development in the Caribbean and the wider world by acting as catalysts for wider awareness of social and economic issues. A study of Economics at the CAPE level will be of benefit to all students by introducing them to the philosophy which underlies everyday economic interactions. The study will also train the student to think logically, critically and impartially on a variety of contentious issues. AIMS The syllabus aims to: 1. promote understanding of the basic principles and concepts of economics which are accepted in large measure by economists while recognising that the field is changing continuously; 2. develop an appreciation of the variou s methods used by economists in analysing economic problems; 3. develop an understanding of the global economy and of the relationships between rich and poor nations with respect to international trade and finance and the most important international financial institutions; 4. ncourage students to apply economic principles, theories and tools to everyday economic problems, for example, inflation, unemployment, environmental degradation, sustainable development and exchange rate instability and to contribute meaningfully to any dialogue on these issues; 5. encourage students to apply economic theory to the critical issues which affect the small open Caribbean-type economy; 6. encourage students to evaluate contentious economic issues so that decision-making may be informed by logical and critical thinking; 7. sensitize students to the need for ethical behaviour in the conduct of economic transactions. SKILLS AND ABILITIES TO BE ASSESSED The assessment will test candidates’ ski lls and abilities to: 1. identify and explain economic theories, principles, concepts and methods; 2. interpret, analyse and solve economic problems using economic models and concepts; 3. develop structural and reasoned expositions and evaluate economic theories and policies. PRE-REQUISITES OF THE SYLLABUS Successful participation in this course of study will be enhanced by the possession of good verbal and written communications skills. A good foundation in Mathematics would be an asset to students doing this course.STRUCTURE OF THE SYLLABUS The Syllabus is arranged into two Units. Each Unit consists of three Modules, each Module requiring 50 contact hours. UNIT 1: MICROECONOMICS Module 1-Methodology: Demand and Supply Module 2-Market Structure, Market Failure and Intervention Module 3-Distribution Theory UNIT 2: MACROECONOMICS Module 1-Models of the Macroeconomy Module 2-Macroeconomic Problems and Policies Module 3-Growth, Sustainable Development and Global Relations Lists of reso urces are provided in the syllabus. The lists provide information that may be helpful for the study of each Module.It is advised that the topics listed in the sections do not necessarily follow sequentially. Teachers may thus introduce certain concepts before others. It is recognised that Economics may be taught using a strictly qualitative approach or a strictly quantitative approach. However, a proper mix of the two approaches is critical to the understanding of the subject at this level. Teachers are advised, therefore, that proper delivery of the subject would involve the integration of the two approaches. ? UNIT 1: MICROECONOMICS MODULE 1: METHODOLOGY: DEMAND AND SUPPLYGENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: 1. appreciate the main problem of economics namely, the allocation of scarce resources and the inevitability of choice; 2. understand the laws, principles and theories governing demand and supply; 3. understand the basic tools of economic analysis. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 1: Central Problem of Economics Students should be able to: 1. explain the concept of scarcity; 2. apply the concept of opportunity cost in a variety of real-life situations; 3. explain the concept of production possibilities frontier (PPF); . use the production possibilities frontier to indicate constant returns, diminishing returns and increasing returns; 5. account for shifts in the production possibilities frontier (PPF); 6. differentiate between positive and normative economics; 7. outline the advantages and disadvantages of the alternative mechanisms by which resources are allocated. CONTENT 1. The meaning of scarcity, free goods and economic goods. 2. (a)Definition of opportunity cost. b) Choice: what, how and for whom to produce. UNIT 1 MODULE 1: METHODOLOGY: DEMAND AND SUPPLY (cont’d) ) The concept of opportunity cost applied to economic agents (individuals, households, firms and governments). 3. (a)Assumptions: maximum output attainable, g iven full employment and constant state of technology. (b)Regions: attainable, unattainable, efficient and inefficient levels of production. 4. Production possibilities frontier: slopes and shapes. 5. Use of production possibilities frontier to show growth and technological change. 6. Examples of positive and normative statements. 7. Different types of economic systems: traditional, market, planned and mixed. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVESTOPIC 2: Theory of Consumer Demand Students should be able to: 1. explain the concept of utility; 2. explain the law of diminishing marginal utility and the limitation of marginal utility theory; 3. explain the meaning of indifference curves and budget lines; 4. explain consumer equilibrium using the marginal utility approach; 5. explain consumer equilibrium using the indifference curve approach; 6. isolate the income and substitution effects of a price change; 7. explain effective demand; 8. derive the demand curve using both the marginal utility and indiffe rence curve approaches; 9. ifferentiate among normal, inferior and Giffen goods; 10. distinguish between shifts of the demand curve and movements along the curve; UNIT 1 MODULE 1: METHODOLOGY: DEMAND AND SUPPLY (cont’d) 11. identify the factors that affect demand; 12. explain the meaning of consumer surplus; 13. explain price elasticity, income elasticity and cross elasticity of demand; 14. calculate numerical values of elasticity; 15. interpret numerical values of elasticity; 16. assess the implications of price elasticity of demand for total spending and revenue; 17. state the factors that determine the price elasticity of demand.CONTENT 1. Utility: total, marginal, cardinal (marginalist approach), ordinal (indifference curve approach). 2. (a)Explanation of diminishing marginal utility. (b)The main assumptions and limitations of Marginal Utility Theory. 3. Indifference curves and the budget constraint (budget lines). 4. The law of equi-marginal returns. 5. The point of tang ency of the budget line to the indifference curve. 6. Income and substitution effects of a price change. 7. Effective demand. 8. Deriving the demand curve using the marginal utility as well as the indifference curve approach. . Normal, inferior and Giffen goods using the indifference curve approach. 10. Shift versus movements along demand curves. 11. Price and the conditions of demand. 12. Consumer surplus including graphical representations. UNIT 1 MODULE 1: METHODOLOGY: DEMAND AND SUPPLY (cont’d) 13. Price, income, and cross elasticities. 14. Calculation of values of elasticity. 15. Classification and interpretations (sign and size); including the drawings and interpretations of graphs. 16. The implications of price elasticity of demand for total spending and revenue. 17.Factors that determine the price elasticity of demand. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 3: Theory of Supply Students should be able to: 1. identify the factors of production; 2. explain the term production functio n; 3. differentiate between the short run and long run; 4. explain the law of diminishing returns; 5. calculate total, average and marginal physical product; 6. explain the relationships among total, average and marginal physical product; 7. identify the stages of production as they relate to total, average and marginal product; 8. calculate total, average, marginal and other costs; 9. xplain the relationship among total, average and marginal costs; 10. explain why supply curves are usually positively sloped; 11. explain the concept of producer surplus; 12. explain the shape of the short run and long run supply curves; UNIT 1 MODULE 1: METHODOLOGY: DEMAND AND SUPPLY (cont’d) 13. explain returns to scale and the concepts of economies and diseconomies of scale; 14. distinguish between a movement along the supply curve and a shift in the supply curve; 15. explain the concept of elasticity of supply; 16. calculate elasticity of supply; 17. interpret elasticity of supply. CONTENT . Factors of production: land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship. 2. Relationship between output and input. 3. Fixed and variable factors. 4. The law of diminishing returns. 5. Calculation of total average and marginal physical product. (See suggested teaching and learning activities). 6. Change in the relationship as input increases. 7. Production and its stages, as they relate to the total, average and marginal product including the use of graphs. 8. (a)Fixed cost, variable cost, total cost, marginal cost, average fixed cost, average variable cost, average total cost, sunk costs. ) The shape of the long run average total cost curve. c) Productive optimum. 9. The relationship between total, average and marginal cost including the use of graphs. 10. Relationship between quantity supplied and price. 11. Producer surplus including graphical representations. UNIT 1 MODULE 1: METHODOLOGY: DEMAND AND SUPPLY (cont’d) 12. Relationship between marginal cost and the average cost in the short run and long run. Explanation of why the supply curve is the section of the marginal cost curve above the average variable cost and average total cost. 13. (a)Long run and economies of scale. ) Factors determining economies of scale. c) Internal and external economies of scale. d) Diseconomies of scale. 14. Price and the conditions of supply. 15. Concept of elasticity of supply. 16. Calculation of elasticity of supply. 17. Classification and interpretation (size of coefficient) including the drawing and interpretation of graphs. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 4: Market Equilibrium Students should be able to: 1. explain the concept of the market; 2. explain market equilibrium; 3. calculate equilibrium price and quantity; 4. outline factors that cause changes in equilibrium; . evaluate the impact of price controls on market equilibrium; 6. analyse the effects of taxation and subsidies on market equilibrium. UNIT 1 MODULE 1: METHODOLOGY: DEMAND AND SUPPLY (cont’d) CONTENT 1. The concept of the market. 2. Equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity. 3. Use of demand and supply data to calculate equilibrium price and quantity. 4. Changes in conditions of supply and demand. 5. The effects of price ceilings and price floors on equilibrium. 6. (a)The effects of taxation and subsidies on market equilibrium. (b)The incidence of an indirect tax.Suggested Teaching and Learning Activities To facilitate students’ attainment of the objectives of this Module, teachers are advised to engage students in the teaching and learning activities listed below. 1. For topic 1, Central Problem of Economics, let students provide examples from personal life, the home, firms and government to demonstrate opportunity cost and the production possibilities frontier (PPF). 2. For topic 2, Theory of Consumer Demand, let students derive their own schedule and plot the demand curve for commodities which they use in their everyday lives. 3.For utility, use water or any other drink to show the different levels of satisfaction (utility). Use the data to derive total and marginal utility curves. 4. For the concept of elasticity, teachers may use two types of materials, one that could change in varying degrees and the other which remains the same regardless of circumstances. Teachers should then apply this concept to market conditions illustrating the concepts of elasticity and inelasticity. 5. For deadweight loss, teachers may use the graphs for consumer and producer surplus to show how market intervention may lead to loss welfare (deadweight loss). 6.For stages of production, allow students to derive the total average and marginal product curves using simulated data. Use the results of the graphs to point out the different stages of production. An example is given below. UNIT 1 MODULE 1: METHODOLOGY: DEMAND AND SUPPLY (cont’d) GRAPH SHOWING THE STAGES OF PRODUCTION [pic] (i)Stage 1occurs up to the point where APPL is at its maximum. (ii)Stage 2 occurs fr om the point where APPL is at a maximum up to the point where MPPL is zero. In this stage new workers add to total physical output. (iii)Stage 3 occurs when MPPL is negative. The producer will operate in stage 2.In stage 1 there is insufficient labour being used (up to the point where MPPL is at its maximum) and the output per worker is increasing. In stage 3 the producer gets no addition to total physical output from additional workers. It would be possible to have more total physical product with less labour applied to a fixed factor (say machinery). UNIT 1 MODULE 2: MARKET STRUCTURE, MARKET FAILURE AND INTERVENTION GENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: 1. appreciate the distinction between the different types of market structures; 2. develop awareness of the causes of market failure; . appreciate the measures that can be adopted to reduce or eliminate market failure; 4. appreciate the arguments which suggest that government intervention may not necessa rily improve economic performance. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 1: Market Structure Students should be able to: 1. outline the goals of the firm; 2. explain how firms measure profits; 3. explain the concepts of average, marginal and total revenue; 4. explain the concept of market structure; 5. outline the characteristics of the different market structures; 6. distinguish among the different market structures; 7. xplain the factors that influence the pricing and output decisions of the firm; 8. calculate measures of industrial concentration; 9. interpret measures of industrial concentration. UNIT 1 MODULE 2: MARKET STRUCTURE, MARKET FAILURE AND INTERVENTION (cont’d) CONTENT 1. Profit maximization, growth, satisficing, sales and revenue maximization, market dominance. 2. Total revenue, total cost, normal and economic (abnormal) profit. 3. Relationship between average, marginal and total revenue. 4. Types of market structures: perfect competition, monopoly including price discrimin ation, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and cartels. . Characteristics of the different market structures. a) barriers to entry; b) control over market and price; c) nature of the good; d) numbers of buyers and sellers; e) competitive behaviour and performance. 6. Focus on all characteristics of the different markets in addition to profit maximization. a) Examples of close approximations of market structures in the Caribbean. 7. Marginal cost and marginal revenue, total cost and total revenue, marginal cost pricing and average cost pricing. 8. Herfindahl Hirschman Index – the percentage of an industry’s output produced by its four largest firms (four-firm concentration ratio): pic] where si is the market share of firm i in the market, and n is the number of firms. 9. (a)Interpretation related to market structures. b) Limitations of measures of industrial concentration. UNIT 1 MODULE 2: MARKET STRUCTURE, MARKET FAILURE AND INTERVENTION (cont’d) SPECIFIC OBJECT IVES TOPIC 2: Market Failure Students should be able to: 1. explain the concept of economic efficiency; 2. distinguish among private goods, public goods and merit goods; 3. distinguish between social costs and private costs and social benefits and private benefits; 4. explain the concept of market failure; 5. explain what is meant by deadweight loss; . outline the causes of market failure. CONTENT 1. Inclusion of discussion of Pareto efficiency. 2. (a)Examples of private goods, public goods and merit goods. (b)Discussion of issues of rivalry and exclusion. 3. Social costs, private costs, social benefits, private benefits, external costs, external benefits. Use of graphical representations. 4. Divergence of social costs and social benefits and efficiency. Use of graphical representations. 5. Deadweight loss including verbal and graphical representations. 6. Causes of market failure: a) monopoly; b) public goods and merit goods; c) externalities: positive and negative;UNIT 1 MODULE 2: MARKET STRUCTURE, MARKET FAILURE AND INTERVENTION (cont’d) d) divergence between social and private costs and social and private benefits; e) imperfect information; f) asymmetric information: adverse selection and moral hazard; g) open access to resources; h) lack of property rights (squatting, streams, ocean); i) non-existence of markets (for trading). SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 3: Intervention Students should be able to: 1. evaluate the measures used by government to correct market failure; 2. evaluate the measures used by the private sector to correct market failure. CONTENT 1.Measures used by government to control market failure: a) -regulation; – anti-trust policy; – taxation; – privatisation and deregulation; – state ownership; – subsidies; – legislation; – market creation (tradable permits); b) pros and cons of government intervention; c) -merits and demerits; – effectiveness of intervention in Caribbean societies (effect of small size in relation to policy making). UNIT 1 MODULE 2: MARKET STRUCTURE, MARKET FAILURE AND INTERVENTION (cont’d) 2. Private Sector Intervention: (a)corporate code of conduct; (b)corporate social responsibility; (c)voluntary agreements; (d)corporate ethics.Suggested Teaching and Learning Activities To facilitate students’ attainment of the objectives of this Module, teachers are advised to engage students in the teaching and learning activities listed below. 1. For price discrimination, teachers could identify the first, second and third degree price discrimination using different examples from students’ experiences. Teachers should then illustrate by use of diagrams. 2. For the kinked demand curve model, teachers may use the daily newspaper or mobile phone industry as examples. UNIT 1 MODULE 3: DISTRIBUTION THEORY GENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: . understand what accounts for the returns that accrue to the owner s of the factors of production; 2. appreciate the issues surrounding poverty and the measures used to alleviate poverty; 3. develop skills in applying microeconomic analysis to critical social issues involving income inequality. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 1: The Demand for and Supply of Factors Student should be able to: 1. explain the rewards of the factors of production; 2. explain the concept of derived demand; 3. outline the marginal productivity theory; 4. apply the marginal productivity theory to the demand for land, capital and labour; 5. nalyse the factors affecting the supply of land, capital and labour; 6. analyse the factors determining rent, interest and wages; 7. distinguish between transfer earnings and economic rent. CONTENT 1. Rent, interest, wages and profits. 2. Derived demand. 3. (a)The assumptions and limitations of Marginal Productivity Theory. (b)Marginal Physical Product, Marginal Revenue Product and their relationship. UNIT 1 MODULE 3: DISTRIBUTION THEORY (con t’d) 4. The value of the Marginal Product: a) land; b) labour; c) capital – using present value (use of graphical representation required). 5.The fixity of land, the supply of loanable funds and the labour supply. 6. The demand for and supply of factors. 7. Numerical, graphical and verbal explanations of transfer earnings and economic rent. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 2: Wage Differentials Student should be able to: 1. explain the concept of wage differentials; 2. analyse imperfections in the labour market; 3. analyse the effect of labour mobility on wages; 4. explain the concept of compensating wage differentials; 5. explain the role of Government, Trade Unions and Employers’ Associations in the pricing of labour. CONTENT 1.Differences in wages within industries and among industries. 2. Imperfections on the demand side (for example, differences in marginal productivity) and on the supply side (for example, geographical immobility). 3. The mobility and immobility of labour; geographical (migration of workers), occupational. 4. Compensating (equalizing) differentials. UNIT 1 MODULE 3: DISTRIBUTION THEORY (cont’d) 5. The minimum wage rate; monopsonies; migration of workers; collective bargaining; trade union strategies, the role of employers’ associations; efficiency wage. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 3: Income inequality, Poverty and Poverty AlleviationStudents should be able to: 1. differentiate between size and functional distribution of income; 2. explain the concept of income inequality; 3. explain the measures of income inequality; 4. explain the measures used to reduce income inequality; 5. distinguish between absolute and relative poverty; 6. outline factors that contribute to poverty; 7. explain why certain categories of people are more susceptible to poverty than others; 8. evaluate the different ways used to measure poverty; 9. outline strategies used by Governments to alleviate poverty; 10. analyse the economic costs of poverty; 1. assess the economic benefits of government intervention to alleviate poverty. CONTENT 1. Size and functional distribution of income. 2. How income is distributed. 3. Lorenz curve measurement of income inequality; and Gini coefficient (interpretation only). 4. Measures to reduce inequality: taxes, subsidies, transfers. UNIT 1 MODULE 3: DISTRIBUTION THEORY (cont’d) 5. Absolute versus relative poverty. 6. Factors that contribute to poverty including: a) social and physical environment; b) discrimination – gender, race; c) restrictions on certain economic activities; d) non-ownership of resources; ) family size; f) single parent; female- headed families. 7. Persons who are most susceptible to poverty: (a)people with special needs; i) physically challenged; ii) elderly; iii) youth; iv) single parent families; v) indigenous people; (b)reasons – Limited access to employment, level of training, legislation, availability of income to share among family. 8. Wa ys used to measure poverty: a) basic needs; b) poverty line; c) head count; d) UNDP Human Development Index (HDI). UNIT 1 MODULE 3: DISTRIBUTION THEORY (cont’d) 9. Strategies to alleviate poverty: a) transfer payments; b) free education and health care; ) housing; d) minimum wage legislation; e) equal employment opportunities; f) Government employment creation(special works programmes). 10. The cost of poverty, including: a) unemployed human resources; b) lower potential output; c) inefficient allocation of Government expenditure; d) social and environmental costs. 11. Economic benefits including: a) provision of education and health leading to development of human capital; b) improvement in well- being as measured by the UNDP (HDI); c) more equitable distribution of income. Suggested Teaching and Learning ActivitiesTo facilitate students’ attainment of the objectives of this Module, teachers are advised to engage students in the teaching and learning activities listed below. 1. Use knowledge from topic 3, unit 1, Theory of Supply, to derive the demand curve for factors of production. 2. Teachers may use graphical representation of the Lorenz Curve to illustrate unequal distribution of income. Teachers should also relate the Lorenz Curve to the GINI coefficient. Also show the effect of taxes on the Lorenz Curve and the GINI coefficient. UNIT 2: MACROECONOMICS MODULE 1: MODELS OF THE MACROECONOMYGENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: appreciate the notion of National Income accounting and the importance of these accounts for macroeconomic theory and policy; 1. understand the views of the classical keynesian and monetarists schools; 2. understand the factors that influence the level of investment in an economy. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 1: National Income Accounting Students should be able to: 1. explain the circular flow of income; 2. explain the concept of National Income Accounting; 3. explain the different ways of der iving National Income Accounts; 4. nterpret National Income statistics; 5. use National Income accounts to analyze the performance on an economy as a whole; 6. derive real GDP from nominal GDP; 7. explain the limitations of GDP. CONTENT 1. Economic agents. 2. Gross Domestic Product (GDP),Gross National Product (GNP) and other measures. 3. Calculation of GDP, GNP and their components (personal income, disposable income), Net National Income (NNI), and per capita income; avoidance of double counting. UNIT 2 MODULE 1: MODELS OF THE MACROECONOMY (cont’d) 4. Total measures: a) GDP at market prices; b) GDP at factor costs. 5.Use of National income accounts to measure economic performance over time and to make inter-country comparisons. 6. Calculation of real and nominal GDP using the price deflator. 7. Limits of National Income Accounts as a measure of well-being: a) non-inclusion of the informal sector (the underground economy, illegal activities); b) non-payment for do-it-yoursel f activities; c) non-accounting for externalities, environmental degradation (Green GDP); d) the fact that it measures changes in the value of output but not changes in the quality of life. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 2: Classical models of the MacroeconomyStudents should be able to: 1. explain why within the classical model, all employment is voluntary; 2. explain how full employment is restored in the classical model; 3. explain the factors that influence aggregate demand; 4. explain the factors that influence aggregate supply; 5. interpret the classical long run supply curve; 6. explain price level determination within the classical model; 7. use the classical aggregate demand and supply model to show changes in the price level and employment. UNIT 2 MODULE 1: MODELS OF THE MACROECONOMY (cont’d) CONTENT 1. Flexibility of wages and prices. 2.The role of wage price and interest rate flexibility. 3. The factors that influence aggregate demand: a) consumer spending; b) investmen t spending; c) Government spending; d) net export spending. 4. Factors that influence aggregate supply including changes in input prices and incomes. 5. The assumptions of the vertical aggregate supply curve. 6. The interaction of the classical aggregate demand and supply curves. 7. Shifts in the aggregate demand and aggregate supply curves. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 3: Basic Keynesian Models Students should be able to: 1. explain the consumption function; 2. xplain the relationship between saving and consumption; 3. calculate the simple multiplier; 4. explain the effect of changes in investment on national income; 5. explain the effect of government spending on national income; 6. describe the effect of withdrawals and injections on national income; UNIT 2 MODULE 1: MODELS OF THE MACROECONOMY (cont’d) 7. explain the relationship between net exports and national income; 8. determine the equilibrium level of national income; 9. explain inflationary and deflationary gaps. CONTE NT 1. Autonomous and induced consumption. 2. (a)Income = consumption plus saving. b)marginal propensity to consume and save. (c)average propensity to consume and save. 3. Simple multiplier [pic]. 4. Relationship between changes in investments and national income. 5. Government’s expenditure and its effects on national income. 6. (a)Concepts of injections and withdrawals in an economy. (b)The effect of injections and withdrawals on national income. (c)Small multipliers in the Caribbean context due to leakages. 7. (a)Relationship between net exports (x – m) and national income. b) Exports as an injection and imports as a withdrawal. 8. Determination of equilibrium income using: a) 45 o line or E=Y; ) withdrawals and injections approach; c) the Keynesian aggregate demand and supply curves (long run and short run). UNIT 2 MODULE 1: MODELS OF THE MACROECONOMY (cont’d) 9. (a)Full employment level of output. (b)Actual level of output. (c)Equilibrium level of national i ncome could be either below, at or above potential level of output. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 4: Investment Students should be able to: 1. explain the concept of investment; 2. differentiate between the investment demand curve and the investment curve; 3. explain the accelerator theory; 4. outlinethe factors that account for the volatility of investment.CONTENT 1. Investment (induced and autonomous). 2. (a)Marginal efficiency of capital (investment demand as a function of expected rate of return). b) Marginal efficiency of investment (non-interest rates as determinants of investment demand, taxes, costs, stock of capital goods on hand expectations). 3. Accelerator theory of investment. 4. Determinants of investment: a) The accelerator; b) Durability; c) Irregularity of innovation; d) Variability of profits, expectations and interest rates. UNIT 2 MODULE 1: MODELS OF THE MACROECONOMY (cont’d) Suggested Teaching and Learning ActivitiesTo facilitate students’ attainment o f the objectives of this Module, teachers are advised to engage students in the teaching and learning activities listed below. 1. For topic 1, teachers should pay special attention to the rules of accounting working from the GDP down to consumption and savings. Teachers should also deal with the concepts such as market price and factor costs, as well as real GDP and normal GDP. Make use of the circular flow diagram from the closed economy to the open economy. 2. For topic 2, Classical Models of the Macroeconomy, teachers should use graphs to emphasize flexibility and the automatic return to equilibrium. . For topic 3, teachers could demonstrate the operation of the multiplier by using data to show the successive rounds of spending. Calculations and graphical representations of the multiplier are required. 4. Use the 45 ° line and average demand and average supply to show inflationary and deflationary gaps. 5. For topic 4, Investment, teachers may use tables to illustrate and expla in the accelerator, that is, the necessity to increase expenditure, constantly, for investment. UNIT 2 MODULE 2: MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND POLICIES GENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: nderstand the reasons why an economy may be characterised by unemployment and how intervention may be used to improve economic performance; appreciate the role of the Central Bank in the economy; understand monetary and fiscal policy and their applications; understand the nature and burden of the national debt. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 1: Unemployment and Inflation Students should be able to: 1. explain what is meant by the labour force; 2. explain the unemployment rate; 3. distinguish between unemployment and underemployment; 4. evaluate the costs of unemployment; 5. explain the causes of unemployment; 6. valuate the policies used to reduce unemployment; 7. explain the causes of inflation; 8. distinguish between real and nominal variables; 9. explain how inflation is me asured; 10. explain the causes of inflation; 11. evaluate the effects of inflation; UNIT 2 MODULE 2: MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND POLICIES (cont’d) 12. evaluate the policies used to combat inflation; 13. explain the relationship between the unemployment rate and inflation. CONTENT 1. Employed and unemployed. 2. The unemployment rate. 3. Unemployment and underemployment. 4. The effect on output, income and growth: additional financial burden on the state; social costs. . Labour immobility, other market imperfections, structural changes in the economy, inadequate aggregate demand, increase in labour force participation rate, seasonality, intervention. 6. Fiscal policy, monetary policy, wage subsidies, retraining programmes, investment tax credit, employment tax credit, government employment programmes, reducing market imperfections. 7. Inflation: general price level. 8. Real and money wages: a) real and nominal GDP; b) real and nominal interest rate. 9. The GDP deflator; the reta il price index; the producer price index. Calculations and limitations of the indices. 10.Demand shocks, supply shocks, increase in the money supply growth rate. 11. The costs and benefits of inflation: the impact of redistribution of wealth; impact of business activity and growth, impact on the balance of payments. 12. Income policy, monetary policy, fiscal policy and supply side measures. 13. Trade-off between inflation and the rate of unemployment: Phillips curve – stagflation. UNIT 2 MODULE 2: MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND POLICIES (cont’d) SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 2: Monetary Theory and Policy Students should be able to: 1. explain the concept of money; 2. outline the functions of money; 3. explain the demand for money; . explain the supply of money; 5. explain monetary policy; 6. explain how the money supply is controlled; 7. explain how money is created in the banking system; 8. explain why residents substitute foreign for domestic currency; 9. explain the Quantit y Theory of Money; 10. outline the types of monetary policy; 11. describe the effects of monetary policy on national income; 12. evaluate the limitations of monetary policy. CONTENT 1. (a)The meaning of money. (b)Types of money: token and commodity. 2. Functions of money. 3. (a)Liquidity Preference Theory. (b)Motives for holding money (transactions, precautionary, speculative). UNIT 2MODULE 2: MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND POLICIES (cont’d) 4. The money supply (M1, M2). 5. Monetary policy – expansionary and contractionary policies. 6. (a)The role of the central bank in creating high-powered money (monetary base). (b)Instruments of monetary control: i) open market operations; ii) discount rates; iii) financing fiscal deficits; iv) reserve requirements; v) moral suasion; vi) interest rates. 7. (a)Excess reserves. (b)Credit creation. (c)The money multiplier. 8. The nature of currency substitution and hoarding. 9. The Quantity Theory of money. 10. (a)Tight monetary policy (in flation). (b)Easy monetary policy (unemployment). c)Balance of payments. 11. How monetary policy affects national income. 12. Limitations of monetary policy including the fact that it is: a) permissive, not compelling and only creates the environment; UNIT 2 MODULE 2: MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND POLICIES (cont’d) b) difficult to control the money supply of foreign-owned commercial banks; c) difficult to eliminate lags in monetary policy; d) weakened by fiscal indiscipline. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 3: Fiscal Policy Students should be able to: 1. explain the concept of fiscal policy; 2. outline the goals of fiscal policy; 3. explain the nature of the budget; 4. xplain the balanced budget multiplier; 5. outline methods of financing budget deficits; 6. evaluate the limitations of fiscal policy; 7. distinguish between discretionary and non-discretionary fiscal policy. CONTENT 1. The meaning of fiscal policy. 2. Fiscal policy as a means of addressing: a) aggregate demand; b) unempl oyment; c) inflation; d) balance of payments. UNIT 2 MODULE 2: MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND POLICIES (cont’d) 3. The nature of the budget: a) taxation, revenue, transfer, expenditure; b) budget surplus and budget deficit; c) balanced budget. 4. Explanation of the balanced budget multiplier. 5.Methods of financing budget deficits including external and domestic borrowing. 6. Lags and potency of fiscal policy. 7. (a)Expansionary and contractionary. (b)Automatic stabilizers. Specific objectives TOPIC 4: Public Debt Students should be able to: 1. explain the national debt; 2. explain the cause of the national debt; 3. evaluate the effects of the national debt on the economy; 4. explain the burden of the national debt; 5. evaluate ways of reducing the debt burden; 6. interpret the debt service ratio; 7. calculate the debt service ratio. UNIT 2 MODULE 2: MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND POLICIES (cont’d) CONTENT 1. The national debt: ) stock/flow; b) fiscal indiscipline; c) domestic and foreign debt. 2. The causes of the national debt. 3. The effects of the national debt on the economy: a) output and investment decisions; b) exchange rate pressures; c) inflation; d) crowding out and crowding in. 4. The responsibility for debt repayment. 1. Management of the national debt: a) internal and external borrowing; b) taxation; c) debt rescheduling; d) debt forgiveness. 2. Interpretation of the debt service ratio. 3. Calculation of the debt service ratio (principal plus interest as a percentage of export). UNIT 2 MODULE 2: MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS AND POLICIES (cont’d)Suggested Teaching and Learning Activities To facilitate students’ attainment of the objectives of this Module, teachers are advised to engage students in the teaching and learning activities listed below. 1. For topic 1, Unemployment and Inflation, teachers should use the Phillips Curve to show the relationship between the unemployment rate and inflation rate. 2. For topic 2 (money multiplie r), show the various rounds in the money expansion process as done in the multiplier. Use Central Bank Acts and Reports for data gathering. 3. For fiscal policy, there is no need for students to derive the balanced budget multiplier.This should only be explained. 4. Teachers should emphasize the causes of the national debt and the burden it places on future generations. UNIT 2 MODULE 3: GROWTH, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL RELATIONS GENERAL OBJECTIVES On completion of this Module, students should: 1. understand the basic concepts of growth and development; 2. understand the impact of imports and exports on the macroeconomy; 3. understand the balance of payments accounts and appreciate the causes and consequences of balance of payments crises; 4. become aware of the benefits and costs derived from current integration arrangements, such as CARICOM, FTAA and the EU; . understand the role and functions of international economic institutions. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 1: Growth and Sustainable Development Students should be able to: 1. distinguish between growth and development; 2. explain the concept of sustainable development; 3. outline the factors that determine growth; 4. outline the factors that contribute to sustainable development; 5. explain the concept of human development; 6. anaylse the structural characteristics of Caribbean economies; 7. analyse the impact of the region’s structural characteristics on sustainable economic development. UNIT 2MODULE 3: GROWTH, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL RELATIONS (cont’d) CONTENT 1. Differences between growth and development. 2. Current growth versus the well-being of future generations. 3. Differences between exogenous (technical change) and endogenous growth (capital accumulation, human capital). 4. Economic, social and environmental factors. 5. Indices of human development including mortality rates, literacy, per capita income, life expectancy. 6. Structural characteristics of Caribbean ec onomies including: a) small size; b) openness; c) composition of exports; d) resource base; e) poverty; f) economic dependence. . Implications for regional economies: a) dependence on aid; b) preferential trade agreements; c) foreign direct investment (FDI); d) vulnerability to natural and man-made change; e) changes in world prices. UNIT 2 MODULE 3: GROWTH, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL RELATIONS (cont’d) SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 2: International Trade Students should be able to: 1. analyse the role of imports and exports in a small open economy; 2. outline the factors that influence exports and imports; 3. explain the effects of foreign exchange earnings on a small open economy; 4. explain the theory of comparative advantage; 5. valuate the arguments for protection; 6. evaluate the arguments for Trade Liberalisation; 7. outline methods of trade protection; 8. explain the commodity, terms of trade; 9. interpret changes in the commodity terms of trade; 10. calculate the commodity, terms. CONTENT 1. The role of exports in creating domestic income and the role of imports in generating income for foreigners. 2. The factors which determine exports and imports including: a) international price; b) domestic production; c) domestic prices and exchange rates; d) international economic activity as it affects the tourism market in the Caribbean; UNIT 2MODULE 3: GROWTH, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL RELATIONS (cont’d) e) shifts in international demand and the emergence of substitutes; f) changes in International Income. 3. Foreign exchange earnings from exports: a) access to capital goods; b) the export multiplier; c) access to consumer goods; d) increased domestic production. 4. The theory of comparative advantage. 5. Arguments for protection including: a) infant industries; b) employment; c) food security. 6. Arguments for Trade Liberalisation including access to technology, availability of cheaper goods and services. Application of the theory of comparative advantage. . Methods of protection including: tariffs, quotas and other non-tariff methods. 8. Explanation of the commodity terms of trade. 9. Interpretation of changes in the commodity terms of trade. 10. Export price index divided by import price index multiplied by 100. UNIT 2 MODULE 3: GROWTH, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL RELATIONS (cont’d) SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 3: Balance of Payments and Exchange Rates Students should be able to: 1. explain the balance of payments; 2. distinguish between the current account and capital account; 3. analyze the causes and consequences of balance of payments disequilibria; 4. utline the policy measures for correcting balance of payments disequilibria; 5. explain exchange rates; 6. explain exchange rates determination; 7. distinguish between fixed and floating exchange rate regimes; 8. describe the effects of the exchange rate changes. CONTENT 1. Explanation of the balance of payments. 2. Capital items and current it ems. 3. The causes and consequences of balance of payments – disequilibria. 4. Policy responses to balance of payments crises including: a) devaluation; b) expenditure switching; c) expenditure reducing measures. 5. Explanation of exchange rates. 6.Determination of exchange rates. UNIT 2 MODULE 3: GROWTH, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL RELATIONS (cont’d) 7. Fixed and floating exchange rate systems (fixed, free floating and managed float). 8. The effects of exchange rate changes. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 4: Economic Integration Students should be able to: 1. explain the main forms of economic integration; 2. evaluate the costs and benefits of economic integration; 3. evaluate the objectives of Caribbean integration; 4. analyse the implications of international integration arrangements for Caribbean economies. CONTENT 1. Main forms of economic integration, including: ) free trade area; b) customs union; c) common market; d) economic union. 2. The costs and benefits of economic integration including trade creation and trade diversion. 3. The objectives of CARICOM and the rationale for the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME). 4. The significance of integration movements, for example European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) for Caribbean Economies. UNIT 2 MODULE 3: GROWTH, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL RELATIONS (cont’d) SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES TOPIC 5: International Economic Relations Students should be able to: 1. xplain the role and functions of the World Trade Organisation (WTO); 2. explain the role of international financial institutions (IFI’s); 3. explain the term multinational (transnational) corporation; 4. explain the nature of foreign direct investment; 5. outline the potential benefits and disadvantages of foreign direct investment; 6. explain the term globalisation; 7. describe the factors responsible for globalisation; 8. evaluate the effects of globalisation on developing countries . CONTENT 1. The role and functions of the WTO. 2. The role of the IMF and World Bank in the International Financial System. . Explanation of multinational (transnational) corporation. 4. The nature of foreign direct investment. 5. Potential benefits and disadvantages, including: a) access to technology and capital; b) access to markets; c) access to management skills; d) repatriation of profits; UNIT 2 MODULE 3: GROWTH, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GLOBAL RELATIONS (cont’d) e) transfer pricing; f) crowding out of domestic businesses. 6. The concept of globalisation. 7. Forces driving globalisation, for example, technological innovation, trade liberalisation, and liberalisation of capital markets. 8.Implications of globalisation for developing countries with particular reference to the greater Caribbean (greater competition, access to markets, access to technology, cheaper prices and greater variety of goods, loss of preferential markets). Suggested Teaching and Learning Activ ities To facilitate students’ attainment of the objectives of this Module, teachers are advised to engage students in examining the structure of the economies of the Caribbean and the problems of imports and exports using international partnership agreements and policies. Teacher should ensure that students could distinguish among; ) Terms of Trade; b) Balance of Trade; and c) Balance of Payments. ? OUTLINE OF ASSESSMENT Each Unit of the syllabus will be assessed separately. The same scheme of assessment will be applied to each Module in each Unit. Grades will be awarded independently for each Unit. Candidate assessment on each Unit will comprise two components: i) External Assessment undertaken at the end of the academic year in which the Unit is taken. This component contributes 80% to the candidate’s overall grade. ii) Internal Assessment undertaken throughout the course of the Unit. This contributes 20% to the candidate’s overall grade. EXTERNAL ASSESSMENT | (80%) | |Paper 01 |Forty-five multiple-choice items, fifteen (15) on each Module. |30% | | |(1 hour 30 minutes) | | | | |Paper 02 |The paper consists of three (3) sections comprising six (6) questions spread across |50% | | |(2 hours 30 minutes) |all Modules in the Unit.Each section contains two (2) essay type questions from which| | | | |candidates are required to attempt one (1). | | | | | | |INTERNAL ASSESSMENT FOR EACH UNIT | | |

Constructivist approach to drama in the classroom

How does constructivist approach underpins what happen In drama? What is Drama? Drama is the act of using the imagination to become someone or something other than yourself. It can be done at any place to any period of time. According to Richard Courtney, a professional in the area of drama in education defines drama as, â€Å"The human process whereby imaginative thought becomes action, drama is based on internal empathy and identification, and leads to external Impersonation†. Courtney believes also that â€Å"life Is a drama. † Humans are always acting and improvising. When e meet someone for the first time, we Improvise our conversation.Life has no script written for us, however, we can use role-play to practice the anticipated situation What is constructivism? The term refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves; each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning, as he or she learns. Constructing meaning is learning. The dramatic c onsequences of this view are two fold; we have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning (not on the subject/ lesson to be taught) There is no knowledge Independent of the meaning attributed to experience constructed) by the learner, or community of learners.As quoted by Ben]amyl Frankly, â€Å"Tell me, and I'll forget. Show me, and I may not remember. Involve me, and I'll understand†. This is indeed a fact for students to remember and understand what is taught, when drama is included. Drama is highly regarded as an effective and valuable teaching strategy because of its unique ability to engage reflective, constructivist and active learning in the classroom as well as enhancing oral skills development. Teachers should definitely incorporate drama in here classroom as this motivate the students that we teach and appeal too range of learning styles.Betty Jane Wagner, an Internationally recognized authority on composition Instruction and the educational uses of drama b elieves that â€Å"Drama Is powerful because Its unique balance of thought and feeling makes learning excellent, challenging relevant to real-life concerns, and enjoyable†. As educators, if we are not providing a fun and jobs. Research indicates that using drama in the classroom as a means of teaching helps students learn academically, socially, and developmentally. â€Å"When drama is employed in the classroom.It can reach students who otherwise couldn't be reached, and challenge students who have already grasped the concepts. Drama provides a fun means of learning. It brings the affective back into the classroom, an institute where emotions and learning are categorically divided. Recent brain research by D. O. Webb, university professor of psychology, proves that emotions are linked with learning. When we connect to the concept emotionally, we will have a better understanding of it. When we teach using the arts we are linking prior experiences with new stimuli. Teaching us ing drama brings emotion and learning together.According to Wagner, when drama is used in the classroom to teach it gets students involved and gives them the power to have a key role in their education. â€Å"Through drama, students became a part of the learning process rather than mere observers or inactive receptacles of the rich experience of learning; in this way, their learning becomes more sustained, and infinitely more complex† Drama is a natural, innate form of learning for children. As young as toddlers, children play house and pretend to be doctors, teachers, or some other career, which assassinates them. These children are using drama to practice for or imitate life. Playing is one of the most powerful ways for a child to learn. He looks at the world around him and plays what he sees such as; going to the office, driving a bus, make- believe stores or parties and on and on. Children also tries different ways of acting, assumes various roles and challenges himself w ith all sorts of problems† (Wagner). Dramatic play helps children prepare for life and cope with growing up. It allows children to explore and make sense of the complexities of life without experiencing allure. Since dramatic play is so innate in children, it should be carried on into the classroom.It is something that children are very good at and love to do. Wagner also argue that, â€Å"Children bring with them to the classroom the universal human ability to play, to behave, â€Å"as if† ; many children spontaneously engage in such dramatic play from as young an age as ten months†. It is very natural for a child to use his or her imagination to transform him or herself even as young as infantry. They are experts in the field†. Psychologist, Sigmund Freud ought surely to kook in the child for the first traces of imaginative activity. The child's best loved and most absorbing occupation is play.Children at play behaves like an imaginative writer, in that h e creates a world of his own or, more truly he rearranges the things of his world and orders it in a new way that pleases him better†(Wagner). When children gets the chance to transform themselves their imagination is set free. They are then able to make connections between what they already know and the unknown. This connection helps children learn and have a better understanding of Incorporating drama in the Classroom In using drama in the classroom, the main goal is to teach the core curricular areas using drama.Betty Jane Wagner, states, â€Å"role playing is improvisational, not scripted and memorized to present a performance for an audience. The emphasis is on drama as an intentional teaching strategy to enhance learning in a particular curricular area†. There are many ways in which drama can be integrated into the classroom. Drama can be a way to teach all subject areas, which includes Language arts, social studies, and science are subject areas, and will definit ely foster a higher bevel of understanding with our students â€Å"It is particularly effective in making a historical event come alive for students,† (Wagner).Act out the Dialogue One of the easiest ways to incorporate drama in the classroom is to have students act out the dialogue from their textbooks. Simply pair them up, have them choose roles, then work together to act out the dialogue, figuring out for themselves the â€Å"blocking,† or stage movements. This is effective for a beginning activity of incorporating drama in the classroom. Perform Reader's Theater Another good beginning exercise is to do Reader's Theater. Hand out copies of a short or one-act play, have students choose roles, and then read the play from their seats without acting it out.However, do encourage them to read dramatically, modeling as necessary. Act out the Story If students are reading a short story such as â€Å"The Chaser,† about the man who buys a â€Å"love potion† for his unrequited love, have students act out the story or part of the story, working in groups and assigning roles and determining the blocking. This is particularly effective with short stories, one-scene stories with limited characters. Write the Dialogue for a Scene Watch a brief clip of a movie without the sound on. Have students write the dialogue for it and act it out. Emotion Give students an emotion, such as â€Å"anger† or â€Å"fear†.Have students, either singly or in groups, first act out that emotion then put words to the emotion. Give Voice† to an Inanimate Object What would a stapler say if it could talk? Or an apple? Have students write monologues with inanimate objects as the character. A monologue is a short scene with Just one character talking, either addressing the audience, God, or himself or herself. Psychologists have viewed drama as a way of learning. While studying the growth of humans cognitively, psychologists have found that drama provid es a sound foundation for development. Level Viscosity and Jerome Burner both see cognitive growth as dependent upon interactive play and upon children imagining themselves acting in worlds that are developmentally a bit above their actual physical and intellectual level. Both provide a solid foundation for using drama in the classroom as a way that deepens and enlarges understanding† (Wagner). Drama is a form of â€Å"learning by doing. Dewey a known psychologist spoke on the importance of imagination, and stated that meanings are derived from past participant's use of imagination. The curriculum should integrate the imagination with the cognitive world of the student.Wagner stated that â€Å"John Dew's, ‘learning by doing theory shaped the progressive era in education†. It is also important to know that drama is beneficial because of how much the participants engage with each other. This helps to develop valuable social skills in young children. In order for ch ildren to be able to learn, they have to feel safe and comfortable. The engagement with each other in drama builds trust and strong relationship. Brain Research It is also important to know how humans learn, this will foster our understanding on the importance of drama.Juliann Sexton, who is the co-chair of drama in education conference, explains that recent brain research shows how drama can plays a part in how students lean. Each person learns best a little differently. Some learn best by visualizing, some by audible, and some by kinesthesia. However, not every person falls into one of these categories. I am sure that many people would confess that they member something best by using a combination of all three types of learning. This is why teachers must utilize all methods of teaching in the classroom.Using drama can be of benefit to all types of learning. James R. Lawson, author of the article, â€Å"Brain-Based Learning,† describes the process of how our brain work Xx wh en drama is incorporated. He states that, the brain undergoes an electrochemical process in which information is transferred from one neuron to the next. The brain is made up of billions of these nerve cells called neurons. â€Å"Neuron connections are flexible, webbed, overlapping, and redundant. Internal and external stimuli collaborate in the formation of pathways and patterns of excited neurons.The more frequently pathways or patterns of neurons are used the stronger the pathways and patterns become† (Lawson). It is important that these pathways and patterns become stronger because as they do it becomes more probable that they will be created again. â€Å"Simultaneous excitation of multiple pathways and patterns create growth of new neuron connections, thus increasing the potential of the brain to learn. It is important when teaching to connect the new eternal with student's past experiences because it is this â€Å"simultaneous excitation† that helps us learn.Dra ma is also a means of problem solving. When students work together in drama, they may run into problems where, for example, they do not agree on a solution or action the rest of their group is taking. Wagner states, â€Å"Participants in drama must negotiate their roles. Unless they can agree and cooperate, the game is over†. Like all group work, students must problem solve how they will handle this conflict of interest. This will help students to become life long learners. Most definitely as adults e all face problems in our social lives.Whether problems occur at home, school, or education calls for more group work, so students obtain the crucial skills needed throughout life. It is quite evident that the frontal cortex part of the brain is very much triggered using drama. Conclusion Drama gives educators the opportunity to teach their students in a way, which would create a love for learning. It provides valuable problem solving, social, and creative skills. Drama embraces the child's imagination and emotions, which in many classrooms are shunned. Students will be able to engage in activities and immersed n the roles, which they assume.We are naturally equipped with the ability to use drama in our lives. It can be said that drama is a way of life. Drama activates the whole brain and also engages many different kinds of intelligences. It reaches students who need a challenge, as well as students who are not reached through traditional teaching methods. If educators want to reach their students and teach them in the most effective possible way, then they will integrate drama and the arts into their classroom. The impact that this kind of authentic learning can make on a child is priceless.